Hobbes and Locke Social Contract Theory Essay

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are two of the most influential political philosophers of the modern age. Their ideas on political philosophy, among other ideas, have helped shaped the Western World, as we know it. One of the most important theories that the two have both discussed, and written in detail on, is the idea of the social contract. Social Contract Theory is the view that moral and/or political duties depend on a contract that leads to the formation of a civil society. Thomas Hobbes was the first person to come up with the idea of a social contract in his text, Leviathan. As with any concept in history, other political philosophers have used Hobbes’ theory as a stepping-stone. One of those men is John Locke, who presents a very different account of how it is civil society is formed. Although both men have very different accounts on the social contract notion, there are some similarities between the two. Before putting pen to paper Hobbes had a front row seat to a quintessential moment in early English history—the English Civil War. The war was a dispute between King Charles I and his followers, the Monarchists and the Parliamentarians. The Monarchists preferred the traditional authority of the king, while the Parliamentarians demanded more power for Parliament, England’s quasi-democratic institution. Hobbes is somewhere in between the two groups with his own set of views. Hobbes believed that political authority is based on the self-interest of the members of the society, all of who are considered equal. He argued that no single individual had the power to rule over the rest. He also backed the conservative point of view that the sovereign must have absolute authority in order for society to last without disruption. It is in the rejection of the Monarchist point of view, that Hobbes and Locke find their first similarity. Both authors sought out to refute the positions presented by Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, regarding the issue of the Divine Right of Kings. Filmer believed that God gave absolute authority to the king. Since God gives the power to the king, political society focused on obeying God unconditionally. Although Hobbes did agree that it was necessary for a king to have absolute authority in order to keep the people in line, he believed that authority came from the people living in the community and not God. Locke’s most influential political writings come from his Two Treatises On Government. His First Treatise is focused almost entirely on rejecting Filmer’s theory. Locke is in line with Hobbes in his belief that political authority comes from the consent of the governed. Along with this similarity, both men also agree on the idea that those people in a State of Nature will willingly consent to coming together to form a political society. They also agree on the belief that people would live in fear of each other regardless of their ability to use reason. Human nature allows men to be selfish. All people have the natural right to defend their own life, liberty, health and property. This fear is what leads many people to come together and form a state so that there would be a central authority to protect their life, liberty, health and property of all people within society. Along with creating the outline for the social contract theory, Hobbes was also a major contribution to the idea of the State of Nature, a hypothetical situation used to show how people lived before the establishment of society. In the State of Nature, life was â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,† characterized by self-interest and the absence of rights and laws (Hobbes 89). Hobbes believed that man was fundamentally evil and required a central authority to keep them out of the conditions of the state of nature. Locke, on the other hand, saw individuals as exercising moral limits over their actions. In order to answer the question of why the people should be willing to submit to political authority, Hobbes uses the idea of a State of Nature. This is a completely hypothetical situation through which he imagines what life was like for men before the establishment of civil society. In the State of Nature, men are naturally and entirely self interested, resources are limited and there is no power that forces the people to follow the rules of society. Men are also considered equal to one another in that even the strongest man can be killed in his sleep. There is no ability for men to ensure the satisfaction of their needs and desires as humans, and no prolonged systems of cooperation among men. The state of nature is a state of constant fear and distrust, or as Hobbes puts it â€Å"a state of perpetual and unavoidable war† (Hobbes 90). Based on the previous definition of the State of Nature, it would seem that mankind is doomed for eternity. However, hope is not lost. Using the power of reason, they are able to understand the laws of nature, which lead man out of the state of nature and into civil society. A Law of Nature, (Lex Naturalis), is a Precept, or generall rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved. (Hobbes 91) The first rule of nature is to seek peace when others are also willing to follow in the quest for peace, â€Å"That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre† (Hobbes 92). In the pages leading up to the natural laws, Hobbes describes what it is that drives us to seek peace. â€Å"The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of Death; Desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a Hope by their Industry to obtain them† (Hobbes 90). These are the things that lead people out of the state of nature and into forming a political society. People want protection of their bodies, property, and commodious living. It is through reason that men are led to the construction of a Social Contract, allowing for a life better then in the State of Nature. The social contract is formed through the establishment of two other contracts. The first contract is that they must agree to establish society by renouncing the rights that they had in the State of Nature. The second is that they must choose a single person, or an assembly of people, that will have the authority to enforce the various parts of the contract. The sovereign has the power to punish those who violate the social contract, which leads people to adjust themselves to the rules of their society. In order to understand the purpose of the Social Contract, Hobbes sets forth a definition of a commonwealth, or civil society: And in him consisteth the Essence of the Commonwealth; which (to define it,) is One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence. (Locke 121) Without a common power to exercise force, society would be the same as it was while in the State of Nature. The Social Contract is considered to be the fundamental source within society for all that is good, along with being the force that allows us to live well. On the opposite side of the spectrum is another major figure in political philosophy, Locke. Locke’s views are very different from that of Hobbes, besides the fact that Locke uses the State of Nature concept created by Hobbes. For Locke, the State of Nature is a state of complete and perfect liberty to live the best life possible, while being free from interference from others. We must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man. (Locke 5) In this state of equality no person has any power over any one else—everyone is subjectively equal. â€Å"The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one; and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it that, being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions† (Locke 5). The state of nature is not a state of license, or a state of authority, in that individuals have the ability to do whatever they want. Although this society is pre-government, morals guide the laws of nature. God gives the natural laws to commands and us that we do not harm others, since we are all equal in the eyes of God. For Locke, the State of Nature is more like a state of liberty that allows the people to pursue their own interests free from interference. It is considered a peaceful state because of the natural laws and its restrictions on the people. Hobbes saw the State of Nature as being a state of constant war, a drastic change compared to the views presented by Locke. Although Locke’s state is predominantly peaceful, there is potential for a State of War. According to Locke, the State of War starts between two or more people when one person declares war on the other. This is usually done by stealing something from the other, or trying to make another man a slave. Since there is no central power to mediate the dispute and the laws of nature allow for self-defense, people are allowed to kill anyone that brings force against them. Without a force to mediate, the duration of wars is much longer and more brutal. Political societies form when men come together in the State of Nature, and agree to give up their power to punish those who disobey the laws of nature and give that power to a central authority. It is through this that the people consent to the will of the majority. Through leaving the state of nature and forming a society, the people create a â€Å"one body politic under one government† and are thus subjected to the will of that particular â€Å"body† (Locke 55). The only way for one to become part of society is through our own individual consent, meaning we cannot be forced to join the society. By joining a society, people gain a few things that they lacked in the State of Nature. These aspects consist of laws, a judge to settle disputes regarding laws and most importantly an executive power to enforce the law. The executive power is created for the protection of the people, their property and general well being. It is when this protection is non-existent, or the King becomes a tyrant by acting against the interest of the people, that the contract can be thrown away. It is with this that the process of establishing a social contract can begin once again, and also the power. Both Hobbes and Locke agree on the fact that people living in a state of nature will come together to form a contract amongst themselves, which ultimately leads to the establishment of society. Both Hobbes and Locke also agreed that people living in a state of nature would be living in a constant state of fear of one another before society is established. Hobbes has a much darker view of Human Nature, seeing them as inherently evil, while Locke viewed man as being guided by â€Å"rational self-interest† with the ability to self-govern without the Leviathan watching over you. These two figures have helped shape our modern systems of government among many other things.

Natural Beauty of Pakistan Essay

Natural beauty is un matched. Pakistan have world most beautiful places for visit, specially at its best in northern areas of Pakistan and Kashmir region. This part of the country is famous all around the world because of sky high mountains, lush green valleys, mighty rivers, beautiful lakes, and amazing wildlife. The Pradise on Earth ‘Neelum Valley’ Mini Switzerland ‘Swat Valley’ and Mountain Kingdom ‘Hunza valley’ are the major tourist attractions in Pakistan. All these places are real natural beauty of the world. Here, below is a list of top 10 Best Natural Places to Visit in Pakistan. The naturally beautiful places of Pakistan, you will not found these beautiful places all over the world. Top 10 Best Natural Places to Visit in Pakistan 1. Neelum Valley Neelam Valley is a 144 km long bow-shaped valley in Azad Kashmir Region. The Valley is situated at the North & North-East of Muzaffarabad (The Capital of Azad Kashmir). Running through the Lesser Himalaya, the Neelam River valley has excellent scenic beauty, panoramic views, towering hills on both sides of the noisy Neelum river, lush green forests, enchanting streams and attractive surroundings make the valley a dream come true. Neelum valley is one of most attractive place for tourists due to its famous lush greenery, springs, streams,lakes and hilly and sloppy mountains. Some of its famous places like Athmuqam, Kutton Jagran, Karen, Neelum, Ratti Galli, Baboon, Noori top, Sharda, Sharda Fort, Sharda University (The Oldest University of Sub-Continent) Kel, Surgon, Halmet, Taobut and many more. 2. Hunza Valley The Hunza Valley is a mountainous valley in the Gilgit–Baltistan region , It was formerly a princely state. The Hunza valley is situated north/west of the Hunza River, at an elevation of around 2,500 metres. The Valley has three Regions – Upper Hunza (Gojal); Center Hunza and Lower Hunza. Hunza valley is the most beautiful place to visit and have many places to see. Some of these beautiful places are. Rakaposhi Base Camp; Diran Base Camp; Hoper Glacier; Passue and Gulmit; Khunjrab Pass; Atta Abad lake and Nagar valley. 3. Swat Valley Swat is a valley and an administrative district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. It is the upper valley of the Swat River, which rises in the Hindu Kush range. Swat Valley, Mini Switzerland of Pakistan has many attraction for visiting such as Mahodand Valley & Lake, Natural Ushu Valley & Ushu Forest, Malam Jabba (Famous ski resort in Swat Valley), Madyan, Swat & Kalam Vallies, Bonir, Der and many other naturaly beautiful sites. 4. Kalash Valley Kalash Valley is one of the major tourist attractions in Pakistan. This is situated in the Chitral district of Pakistan. This valley has a historic background but its history has controversies. Kelash is actually a very old Greek civilization. The people belonging to this civilization are called ‘The Kelash’. Belongs to old tribes and have their own religion and culture. This valley has a unique and amazing culture. The People here live in small villages which they built on the hill sides. These villages are at the banks of the streams and rivers. People construct their homes with rough shaped logs. People of Kalash are cheerful, they celebrates many festivals like Uchal Festival, Phoo Festival and Chomos Festival. There are many attractive sites for visiting. 5. Kaghan Valley The Kaghan Valley is a beautiful valley in the north-east of Mansehra District . It attracts many tourists from not only Pakistan but also from the whole world. Laying in lower Himalayan mountains range, the Kaghan  valley, famous for its bewitching splendor and natural beauty, is one of the most charming tourist resorts in scenic Hazara division. There are many beautiful and attractive spots like Shogran, Jared, Naran,Lake Saiful Muluk, Lake Dudipat Sar, Lake Lulu Sar, Babusar Pass and much more to do. 6. Murree Hills This is a summer hill station, summer resort and is sitated in Murree, the subdivision of Rawalpindi District. Murree was the summer capital of the British Raj in the Punjab Province. People from all over the Pakistan wish to go there in summer to enjoy its beauty and in winter season for astonishing experience of snowfall. Bhurban and New Murree (Patriata) are a main tourist center. One of the most favorite tourist point of Murree is Galliat, it has fascinating greenery and scenic beauty that attracts tourist belonging different regions of Asia. Most Popular Picnic Points of Murree Hills are Dunga Gali , Muskpuri Hill , Nathia Gali, Bara Gali and Mall Road. 7. Shandur Pas Shandur – The Highest Polo Ground on Earth, is about 3738 meter an above sea level and lies midway between Chitral and Gilgit. Each summer a hug event called the Shandur polo festival is organized here, which is a big source of attraction for the tourists. Different come against each other in this freestyle contest. The pass is generally unpopulated and passing through its snow covered slopes in winters is an exceptionally difficult adventure. The polo ground is about 168 Km from the main town Chitral and accessible by jeep. The road is closed during winter due to heavy snow. 8. Rawalakot Rawalakot is a town in Azad Kashmir, and is the district headquarter of Poonch Division. It is in a beautiful valley surrounded by hills, which is located 80 km away from Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Rawalakot is a summer visiting point The winters in Rawalakot are cold and chilly. There are many attraction for visitors like Banjosa; Toli Pir; Poonch River; Tatta Pani;  Banjosoa Lake; Sudhngalli and many more. 9. Ziarat Ziarat is the capital of Ziarat District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Ziarat is a famous holiday resort of Balochistan and nearly every trip from Karachi to Quetta stops at Ziarat. Ziarat was the summer residence of the chief commissioner of Baluchistan, and sanatorium for the European troops at Quetta. There is a good water supply, and the hills around are well-wooded and picturesque. A visit to Quetta is incomplete without a trip to Ziarat. Ziarat is a hill station in the Sibi district of the province of Baluchistan. It remains quite cool during summer and receives enough snowfall during the winter. 10. Jehlum Valley This is an ideal valley of Azad Kshmir region for both the domestic and international tourists. The curling river Jhelum passes through from East to West between the high green mountains of this valley. This valley has a most beautiful valley â€Å"Leepa Valley† . This is the most fascinating & loveliest valley in Azad Kashmir. Its lush green rice fields in summer and typical wooden Kashmiri houses present a wonderful view to the people visiting the area. Walnut, Apple, Cherry and honey of Leepa are very popular and in great demand. There are many visiting sites like Peerchanasi, Chikar, Chinary, Leepa, Chakothi, Ghari Dopatta, Chokothi Cham-fall and Zilzaal Lake.

Analyse the comedy in Act 3 Scene 4 of 'Twelfth Night'

Analyse the comedy in Act 3 Scene 4 of Twelfth Night Essay Shakespeares romantic comedy Twelfth Night involves deception, trickery and love, typical themes in Elizabethan drama. This theme of romance intertwined with comedy is suggested by the title which implies that a play set in the Christmas season is going to be full of love, happiness and celebration. The literary tradition of an Elizabethan comedy would involve many techniques to make the audience laugh, such as a convoluted plot, mistaken identity, disguise, comic characters and verbal humour. Twelfth Night is no exception to this. Its main theme is love but the path to true love is not simple for any of the characters and involves certain love triangles, where Orsino thinks he loves Olivia, who loves Cesario (Viola), who is in love with Orsino. Added to all this is the complication of Sir Andrew Aguecheek being spurred on by Sir Toby to woo Olivia and Malvolio having a trick played on him which makes him believe that his mistress, Olivia loves him. Many of these plots and sub-plots come to a head in Act3 Scene 4 in a very comic manner. Malvolio provides much of the visual humour in this scene. Olivia sends for him on a serious matter, saying: Wheres Malvolio? He is sad and civil, And suits well for a servant with my fortunes: The audience would be full of anticipation at this point as Malvolio has been told in a letter supposedly sent to him by Olivia to smile a lot more, something which is totally against his usual character. When he walks on stage he is wearing yellow cross-gartered stockings which he thinks he has been commended to wear. This would make the audience laugh as it is so different to the Puritans clothes that he was wearing earlier in the play. It was also mentioned earlier that Olivia despises the colour yellow so her reaction to seeing her steward dressed so comically would add to the humour of the scene. Malvolio starts to quote from the letter he received from Maria. He never once suspects that it is not real and truly believes that Olivia could love him, which is where much of the comedy derives from, as he is so confident that Olivia understands what he is talking about when he quotes from the letter. His pride and arrogance that he is worthy to marry Olivia is extremely funny. It is also the dramatic irony that makes it humourous, as the audience and most of the characters realise where he is quoting from whereas Olivia doesnt understand what he is talking about and believes it to be midsummer madness. It is very entertaining to see Malvolio act in such a way, smiling insanely, as it is a complete contrast between his earlier self, very pompous and arrogant. However, he as he has been told in the letter, he speaks rudely to the other characters and believes himself to be not of (their) element, which is funny because actually he is no more important than any of the other servants. It is also the frustration that he shows when people arent taking him seriously that makes the audience laugh. It is funny when Malvolio makes his grand exit, as he is acting an extremely bossy and arrogant manner but looks ridiculous so the contrast is comical. In fact, this whole scene is a contrast to the main theme of love and romance. Another example of visual comedy in Act 3 Scene 4 would come from the duel between Sir Andrew Aguecheek and Viola (as Cesario). Sir Andrew is essentially a figure of fun throughout the play, being described as a foolish knight by Sir Toby and having hair which hangs like flax on a distaff which would make him look really odd. He has written a challenge to Viola because he thinks he is a rival for Olivias affection, but when Sir Toby reads it out, it is totally nonsensical. Fabian says of it: READ: Masks In The Twelfth Night EssayVery brief and to exceedingly good sense (Aside) less. Sir Andrew is very proud of the challenge so it is funny to see how he takes it so seriously even when the other characters are mocking his prose behind his back by using asides and whispers to each other. Sir Toby and Fabian decide not to show the letter to Viola, but instead they tell him verbally that Sir Andrew is a very noble and valiant knight, something that the audience knows isnt true and would cause much amusement: He is indeed, sir, the most bloody, and fatal opposite that you could possibly have found in any part of Illyria. They then say similar things to Viola about Sir Andrew: Why, man, hes a very devil.They say he has been fencer to the Sophy. When the two come to fight, they are both absolutely terrified of the other and that provides opportunities for plenty of visual humour with Sir Andrew and Fabian practically having to drag them towards each other with their swords drawn. It is comic irony that Olivia is unaware of Sir Andrews love for her and has been rejected by Cesario, so really there is no point in the duel in the first place. The actual preparation for the fight is almost slapstick, especially when Antonio comes running in to take Cesarios place. The confusion that arises here is humorous, as it is funny to see Antonio confusing Cesario for Sebastian at the same time as Sir Toby would be mystified by who this stranger is. Fabian and Sir Toby then add another part to their joke by convincing Sir Andrew that Cesario is a coward and has run away. They want him to follow and cuff him soundly, which is funny because Andrew had previously been against the duel because he thought he would be beaten, but now that he thinks he has a chance of winning he is suddenly full of valour. The situation is becoming completely absurd at this point, something that the audience would find very amusing. Another form of comedy running throughout the play is cross-dressing. Audiences in Shakespearean times would find it funny to see a man acting the part of a woman pretending to be a man. This is because all parts in those days were played by males, with female roles being played by boys before their voices deepened. The fact that there is so much pretence involved makes it doubly ironic. It would be funny to see Viola, a woman, being asked to duel by Sir Andrew and being so scared that she is almost tempted to reveal her disguise. She says in an aside just before she is due to fight: A little thing would make me tell them how much I lack of a man. One of the main linguistic forms of comedy used by Shakespeare is puns, which are still used today but probably had more relevance to a Shakespearean audience than to us. This is because the puns were in the language of the time and were understood far more easily than they are today. It is also funny to see other people being the object of the pun, and misunderstanding of words. For instance, when Olivia believes Malvolio to be mad, she suggests that he go to bed. However, he misinterprets this remark and believes her to be offering for him to go to bed with her. To bed? Ay, Sweetheart, and Ill come to thee. During Shakespeares time, the words made and mad were pronounced the same. He has used this language to his advantage and creates humour by having Malvolio to say thou art made, which Olivia takes to understand that he is telling her that she is mad. This confuses her and the audience finds this funny. Another device used by Shakespeare is oxymorons. Sir Toby says that the letter, being so excellently ignorant, will breed no terror in the youth, which emphasises how bad the letter is, but is also funny for the audience to hear because excellently, and ignorant, are complete opposites. READ: Othello, by Shakespeare EssayYet another form of comedy comes from the characters. Sir Toby spends the whole scene manipulating the actions, firstly of Malvolio because of the letter he dropped in his way and the fact that he is given the task of looking after him, and then, more directly, of Sir Andrew. He is a bit like a puppet master who has Sir Andrew and, although not for such a long period, Viola dancing to his tune. When Olivia becomes worried by Malvolio who is acting totally out of character, she asks Sir Toby to take great care and look after him: Wheres my cousin Toby? Let some of my people have a special care of him; I would not have him miscarry for the half of my dowry. Sir Toby willingly plays along with pretending to be concerned about Malvolio when he knows all along what has caused his strange behaviour. He, together with Maria and Fabian, approach Malvolio and try to talk to him: .. .peace, we must deal gently with him. How do you, Malvolio? What, man, defy the devil! The audience would find this very funny, especially considering Malvolios lack of appeal as a character. Later on, Toby calls him a bawcock, which would be an insult as this was a term of endearment spoken to a child. Malvolio would have been insulted by this, adding to the audiences amusement. Tobys plans for Malvolio, to put him in a darkened room and bind him up, would have met with general amusement as well. Sir Toby manipulates the whole scene with Sir Andrew and Viola for his own entertainment. Again, as he is a character that the audience would find appealing because he is lively and, on many occasions, drunk and funny, the audience would find the whole business of the duel hilarious. The physical comedy of a man acting drunk was usually very funny to an Elizabethan audience, as it still is now. However, aside from this comedy, there is a more serious element to the plot. At the end of the scene, there is still comedy, but a hint of seriousness. If this were a tragedy, then things may well have turned out differently but as it is a comedy, we know that everything will be all right in the end. There is a hint of how these problems will be resolved in this Scene. For example, when Antonio asks Cesario for his purse, thinking that he is Sebastian, he is taken aback when he claims to not have it. When Antonio is then arrested, we are reminded that things could actually go down hill. However, Viola realises that her brother may be alive so we know eventually Sebastian will have to be mistaken for Cesario to resolve the confusion. Even though the trick on Malvolio was very funny at the time, it could have led to him becoming mad and being left in the dark room forever. The audience can even begin to feel sorry for Malvolio as the joke may have gone too far. Some people have even said that the situation with Malvolio is not completely resolved, as on his final exit he says that he will have his revenge. Ill be revengd on the whole pack of you! In spite of this, it can be said that Shakespeare never meant for the audience to feel sorry for Malvolio, and that he deserved to get his comeuppance, so there is no need for him to have a happy ending. Still, the other characters were never unpleasant, so deserved to have happy endings. As the title suggests, we know that in the celebration of Twelfth Night, all will be resolved.

Multimedia and design Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Multimedia and design - Assignment Example ny professional in any occupation where they build or construct something from scratch, there are right ways and wrong ways to utilize elements of design and they are not all based on what someone simply likes. When looking at the fashion, someone can design an outfit but is it functional? Badly designed outfits will never be worn and are not ever going to be purchased if they do not include good elements of design. The same with a car. If the design of a car is based on what the creator likes, then no one would buy it. Design in these fields has to do with marketability and bad design can crush profitability. Interior design is another field where elements can create different moods. If a person mixes and matches fabrics and textiles all due to their own likes, the space can be overwhelming to be in or even evoke a negative response. When it comes to design in technology, while taking a look at a website, if a design of a website is not functional, no users will come visit the site. If it is cluttered and is chaotic, it is not appealing to anyone. When looking at multimedia as a personal experience, it is all about using design of pictures, interactive features and other elements to create ways for people to get something out of their experience. When thinking of blogs, websites or social networking sites, it is a goal of multimedia techniques to intrigue others. It is a form of marketability and branding to enhance a persons visit. It is not necessarily for ones own use but for productivity and profitability increases in ways to increase others personal experience. It creates more of a personalized

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 10

Case Study Example ular profession and these conducts stems from ethical point of view since some of the professional code of conducts are inefficient without the ethical inclination. Thus profession and religious ethics are intertwined and anybody dealing with professional life problem will in most cases be influenced by the religious ethical views. (Kultgen, H pg 4 & 5) In the case scenarios given, Mayor Bazelon, governor Schreiner and Alya are concerned as to what is the appropriate dress code for students, the issue of female genital mutilation and submission to husband respectively, with restorationists opposing the view of school uniforms as not being modest and against their religious teachings and FGM is grounded on their religious practices, feminists argue that restrictive robes are degrading to women and FGM is inhumane, conservatives holds that their shall be segregation of Muslims and loss of American culture if they are allowed to wear religious robes. The Jews also express concerns of totally outlawing circumcision including male. It can be viewed that we should respect the religious teachings for they are what shape our daily lives and makes us righteous with the creator, thus Muslims who are the dominant group should be allowed to exercise their obedience to Allah through their daughters wearing restrictive robes (Utilitarian approach). (Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, pg 5) Given that ethical actions should be that which allows all to choose freely what they desire, in this regard therefore Muslims, feminists, conservatives and Jews should choose freely whatever they want. However, since social order is fundamental for societal prosperity, the end of this is disorder, therefore in my view it should not be followed (Rights approach). (Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, pg 6) Since all are Americans bound by the federal and State constitution with the obligation to respect them, thus if it’s a matter of law then all ought to adhere as this is fair and just

The Search for Better Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Search for Better Health - Essay Example At the start of the twentieth century, researches on this subject had been mushrooming steadily which opened ways for better health practices. One of the pioneers in this field was Frank M. Burnet (Nossal 108). Frank Macfarlane Burnet was an Australian virologist and Nobel Prize winner recognized for his contributions to the field of immunology. He conducted ground-breaking research on bacteriophages and viruses at and served as director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute. His virology research led to considerable impact related to discoveries on the nature and replication of viruses and their interaction with the human immune system. He was deeply involved in immunology research, more specifically in the theory of clonal selection which illustrates how lymphocytes choose antigens for destruction, which provided the experimental background for the induction of immune tolerance. His contributions in this field also set the platform for the development of protocols for solid organ transplantation and vaccination. He contributed important knowledge related to influenza research which included techniques for growing and studying the virus and hemagglutination assays. Apart from his discove ry of neuraminidase he also worked on the genetic control of virulence. He also wrote a monograph entitled "The Production of Antibodies," which was later revised with co-author Frank Fenner in 1949. This book was considered as a key publication in the field of immunology. It contained the essential demonstration of the shift on the science of immunology from a chemical point-of-view to a biological one. Furthermore, it is this work where he introduced the model of 'self' and 'non-self' to immunology. Using his concept of the said model, he formulated the hypothesis of 'autoimmunity" which is a situation wherein the body produces antibodies against its own components and consequently, the idea of immune tolerance. Through his model called clonal selection, he expanded current knowledge on immunology by proposing that each lymphocyte possess on its surface specific immunoglobulins mirroring the specificity of the antibody which will be produced later one the cell is stimulated by an antigen. According to him, the antigen functions as a selective stimulus for the proliferation and differentiation of clones that possess receptors for that antigen. Such was the impact of Frank M. Mcfarlane to the field of immunology and vaccination (Nossal 108). Epidemiological Studies on Non-Infectious Diseases Every public health organization must have extensive and up-to-date information regarding diseases and health indicators to be more prepared and armed in the dispersal of control and preventive measures. This implies the conduct of epidemiological studies which involve efficient collection and analysis of large amounts of data related to public health. Information that can be generated from this activity will be very helpful in the causal identification of non-infectious diseases and for the formulation of health programs by the local and the national government (Stroup & Teutsch 312). Epidemiological studies are based on systematic and instructive surveillance of the health of the general public which requires careful statistical analysis. To be able to establish an effective non-infectious

Analysis of the operations management activities of zara Essay

Analysis of the operations management activities of zara - Essay Example The organisation that has managed to pull this off is Zara, the Spanish fashion retail chain. Not only has Zara continued to record rising profits in a stagnant market, but is increasing the pace of store openings to almost one per day in the current year. Currently there are 758 Zara stores throughout the world in 58 countries, but by 2009, there are planned to be 4000. (Kane 2005). The company is not just a European phenomenon, but a global force and in many ways could be considered a leader in the retailing revolution that is sweeping the fashion world. Zara is a company within the Inditex holding group also founded by the creator of Zara. Before looking in depth at the successful business model that Zara operates and how it was developed it is worth looking at the overall fashion scene in order to gauge the field and to further show how different Zara is and how it became and remains so successful. Without doubt, there is a fashion revolution underway in the High Street. This revolution underscores a fashion retailing war that can only be described as cut throat and it reflects a huge change in the underlying cause of fashion expectations amongst the shoppers - the huge reduction in cost of high fashion items which has been pioneered by such fashion retailers as H&M of Sweden, Top Shop of the UK and especially Zara of pain. The war has had many casualties which have been mortally wounded amongst them C&A and M&S which catered for the wrong people at the wrong time and ended up with millions in unwanted unsaleable stock. Other companies struggled through the bad patches and are fighting back to remain in the high street realising belatedly that shoppers all over Europe and indeed the rest of the world want to dress like the rich and wealthy and the stars of stage and screen. Fashion retailers are rushing to satisfy this demand and shops like Top Shop, gap, Zara and others are b attling it out to get ahead and stay on top in this cutthroat and swiftly changing business. The market in Britain alone is worth 27 billion pounds and decisions made by company and group managements right down to store managers together with their chosen business models make the companies sink or swim. A BBC report on the subject (BBC News 2003), noted that shoppers had become obsessed with the way that celebrities dressed because those clothes have become so much more accessible in both price and availability. Stores are becoming that much better at including items that celebrities wear and reproducing them very quickly. The same report quotes Top shop director Jane Shepherdson as saying that customers want to be able to buy into the trends that they've seen from the catwalk as soon as possible. Top shop wasn't always able to accommodate this because of its inflexible business plan that operated separate summer and winter collections which often had lead times built into the system of up to 18 months. By observing another rival on the high street scene, Gap, it can be seen that by relying on previous problems were due to a mistaken strategy of targeting the teenage market with its Old Navy stores. The Swedish firm H&M was one of the leaders in changing that by appointing young designers to make high fashion as swiftly and as cheaply as possible, but initially the quality

Standard, Ethics and Copyright Investigation Essay

Standard, Ethics and Copyright Investigation - Essay Example The ISTE defined standards seem totally aligned with this old saying. According to the standards, the teachers are expected to use their subject knowledge to inspire the students for learning. Their task is to inculcate critical thinking in their students in order to make them observe, understand and solve real world problems. The teachers should work as facilitators and should guide the students throughout as supervisors, mentors or learning participant. The assessment is an integral part of learning. The results always encourage good students to move forward and keep up their pace. To assess the student correctly in a qualitative manner is the most difficult task for a teacher. The ISTE expects a teacher to get engaged in the Designing of Assessment procedure using the tools of digital age. The teachers are not only expected to deliver to the students but they are also expected to continuously engage in self improvement. Administrators are expected to create and support an environm ent and culture that supports digital learning. Ning is a social network for the promotion of Digital Learning. It provides the ISTE members mean to get connected for the cause and to share the knowledge round the year. Topic Two: NETS-S (National Educational Technology Standards for Students) Students are the main product of ISTE. They are expected to exhibit innovative and critical thinking, to show team work, to use the digital media effectively for learning, and to demonstrate the conceptual knowledge of the technology. NETS.T comprises of the standards of teaching that are expected to be complied by the teachers under ISTE. Topic Three: Ohio Technology Standards According to the Seven Standards The teachers are expected to understand the learning capacity of students and the difference of caliber must be considered positively. Teachers are expected to have a complete grip on the subject they are responsible to teach. Teachers must ensure that the students they are teaching are learning. this should be done through deploying the assessment mechanisms. Lectures must be planned and effective. Teachers are expected to create and promote appealing learning environment. Teachers are expected to have good communication of students’ learning with the related entities like Administrators and Parents etc. Teacher must adhere to their own professional growth practices. These standards are not difficult to be followed. Both the standards that are ISTE and Ohio seem equally good. Ohio seems more organized. Topic Four: Ohio ETech Office and Programs Ohio ETech Conference is a massive conjecture of over 6500 technology innovators that gather once in a year. The year 2012’s conference is expected to be held from 13-15 Feb 2012. This conference is conducted in Ohio only once in a year. It is the opportunity for technology innovators and enthusiasts to present their ideas and innovations in front of their peers. E Tech offers a number of distant learning and other technology based and technology related courses. These include telecommunity and mathematics just to name a few. Local education agencies are the sources of money/grants for etech from Ohio teachers. Topic five: Ethics or Netiquette AUP acceptable Use Policy. AUP is like a code of conduct that has been set for students. It is a law constructed to guide students so as to enable them to be aware of what actions can they perform over the internet and what actions they cannot. It specifically consists of a definition, a policy statement, an acceptable use section, an unacceptable use section and a sanctions’ sections. As the names of its parts suggest it also contains the sanctions that can be promulgated if violations of its conducts occur. Online safety for students is concerned with the fact that they should not reveal

The influence factors that affect to the Thai consumers' decision on Dissertation

The influence factors that affect to the Thai consumers' decision on online shopping - Dissertation Example 2). Customers are seen as kings in their own accord as their behaviors in purchases are dependent on the treatment given by sellers. Moreover customers preferences and needs influence the suppliers production practices in that suppliers would not supply the goods that have lower reception within the market and thus customers say proves supreme. The supremacy of the consumers is not only explained through the fact that it is through the ‘consumer’ that the producers remain in business and make their gains. As a king is special in how he is to be handled, a customers in a like manner requires proper treatment in order to sustain them. Online customers require treating well through good treatment in order to retain them for their own benefits or that of the suppliers. Despite the emergence and embrace of online trading avenues as discussed above, there are ongoing debates concerning the effectiveness of online practices as compared to the physical retail trade. The supporte rs of physical shopping reason that shopping from physical outlets is easy and entails little logistics as compared to the internet buying. Online shopping or trade is highly acknowledged from the spheres of debate that it provides a customer with an opportunity to access easily and exchange notes on various products in order to make informed decisions. Besides, time and resources are saved over the internet as one would access the items from the comfort of own office. Cultural orientation, proficiency in internet use as well as institutional frameworks would best explain the factors that influence personal decision to engage in online trade. This paper focuses critically on reasons and factors that influence the people of Thailand to engage in online trade through special attention on influencing factors such as level of literacy, awareness campaigns, cultural values as well as government policies. Besides, the experience in using online shopping means by the Thai people would be i nstrumental in influencing the current as well as future tendencies in shopping from internet. For instance, fast moving beauty products for the women or female genders may record better reception as compared to other products for the opposite gender. Much of the past studies that have addressed the topic of online shopping and factors that influence the decisions have confined much attention to the risks perceived while engaging in online purchasing habits. Emphases have been that the risks as identified all over the world go a long way in influencing the decisions as well as behaviors of consumers through online purchasing. However, a new dimension of looking to the online shopping is through considering the benefits that come with the practice. The world has increasingly been embracing technological advancement especially concerning internet use through diversified platforms such as through computer systems as well as through mobile telephones. This in effect has been claimed to have influence on perceptions of individuals concerning online business transactions. This study therefore focuses on and considers main factors of consumers’ decision on online shopping as regards to the people of Thailand. It will show the problem for applying the result to solve problem with Thailand’s online shopping system for improvement and development in the future. However, the question that will guide our study is ‘what influence factors affect the Thai consumers’

Discussion wk 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion wk 4 - Assignment Example Similarly, firms that are looking to minimize their risk even at a higher cost would go for conservative financing strategies. Nominal interest rate is also termed as the stated interest rate. This interest rate does not include the compounding of the period or the time of the loan or investment and this interest rate is the simple interest rate. On the other hand, effective interest rate considers the compounding of the period throughout the period of the loan or investment. Effective interest rate is used in order to analyze and compare the annual interest between loans or investment with different time periods. Generally, the nominal interest rate is less than the effective interest rate (Elias). Therefore the main factor that causes these two types of interest rate to differ is the period of the loan or investment. Elias, G. What is the difference between effective interest rates and nominal interest rates?. Engineering Economy, 26 Jan. 2014.

Gautam Buddha Essay Example for Free

Gautam Buddha Essay Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhartha Gautam, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a spiritual teacher from ancient times and the founder of Buddhism. He is universally recognized by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (Sammasambuddha) of our age. Yet his exact date of birth and death is uncertain but a majority of historians date his lifetime from circa 623 B. C. to 543 B. C. He is one of the few luminaries in the history of humans who is such a wide and lasting influence to the people. There are countless stories of the Buddha each tradition, each culture, each time period has their own stories . It is believed that, immediately after his birth he took seven steps and on each step a lotus blossomed which represents the seven colours of rainbow. The tales say he was a son of a king raised in a palace with every imaginable luxury, he was called Siddhartha Gautama-a prince among a clan of warriors â€Å"When I was a child† he said â€Å"I was delicately brought up most delicately, a white sunshade was held over me day and night to protect me from cold, heat, dirt and dust. My father gave me three lotus’s ponds one where red lotuses bloomed, one where white lotuses bloomed, one where blue lotuses bloomed† Pali talkie Gautam Buddha is the key figure in Buddhism. Discourses, and monastic rules were summarized only after his death and memorized. Passed down by oral tradition, the Tripitak- the holy book of Buddhism is also written on pali language only after 400 years of his death which is divided into 3 parts 1st the rules that a Buddhist monk needs to follow, 2nd Buddha’s admonition and 3rd Accounts of Buddha’s life. Siddartha Gautam: Siddhartha Gautam was born in southern Nepal at the foot of the Himalayas on the famous gardens of Lumbini, which is located in the Terai plains of southern Nepal, testified by the inscription on the pillar erected by the Mauryan Emperor Asoka in 249 B. C. Siddhartha was a child with a contemplative bent of mind. He was inclined towards meditation and spiritual pursuits much against the wishes of his father. His father feared that Siddhartha might leave home, and so, kept tried to insulate him from the harsh realities of the world outside by keeping him inside the palace all the time. Sealed from pain and suffering Siddhartha indulged in a life of pure pleasure. Every whim satisfied every desire fulfilled. The Buddha once said â€Å"During the rainy season I stayed in my palace where I was entertained by musicians and dancing girls I never thought of leaving. † when he was sixteen his father draws him in tighter in to palace life, married him to his cousin which wasn’t long before they fell in love. But one day when he goes outside travelling through the kingdom, and he has the first of four encounters he sees an old man and he ask his attendants and attendants replied oh! That is the change, no human being could stay young everybody needs to grow old. Then on his next tour outside he sees a sick man and doesn’t quite understand what it is, again he ask his attendants then his attendants replied oh! That happens to all of us everybody gets sick and don’t think you are a prince and you don’t get sick your father, your mother everybody will become sick. Then he sees that it isn’t just a sick person in fact it’s the universal and something is stimulated inside of him so he keeps getting the chariot to take him out then he sees horror after horror. And on his third trip outside he meets a corps then he recognizes impermanence, suffering and death as a real state of things, the world that he has been protected, sealed or kept from seeing and he was shocked then he realized this is my fate too I will also become old I will also become sick and eventually I will also die, how do I deal with these things. And then on his fourth trip outside he sees the spiritual seeker someone who was decided to live a life completely other than his life in order to escape impermanence, sufferings and death. Soon after he left his family and Kingdom at the age of 29 and went into the forest in search of peace and truth. Siddhartha was alone in the world for the first time, on the bank of the nearby river he drew his sword â€Å"although my father and step mother were grieving with tears on their faces† Siddhartha said â€Å"I cut of my hair I put on the yellow robes and went forth from home into homelessness. I have been wounded by the enjoyment of the world and I had come out longing to obtained peace. † Then he wandered from place to place to gain knowledge. He met many cholars and saints but he was not satisfied. At last he started hard meditation bearing great physical suffering. Emaciated, exhausted Siddhartha tortures’ himself trying to destroy anything within himself that he sees it’s bad. It is said that Siddhartha had lived many life before this one as countless animals, innumerable human beings and even gods across four incalculable ages that secret text say and many eons experiencing life in all at different forms. The Buddha: Gautam Buddha seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya small town in north eastern India. For Buddhist there are hundreds of holy places but none more sacred than Bodh Gaya. It is the sacred point from which the buddhits faith radiates. It is their mecca or jeroselum or any other initiation forms of initiator. Then he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth so he sat down with his rags he was wearing under the shade of Bodhi tree at the bank of the river and began to meditate. It was spring time with a full moon on the sky at night, before the sun would rise Siddhartha’s long search would be over. Siddhartha now got transformed into Buddha or the enlightened one at the age of the thirty five. The pipal tree under which he got Enlightment came to be known as Bodhi Vriksha. Buddha saw nature of the people envy, jealousy and strong negative mental stage. He analyzed all the people in the world they are like the fishes riddling in the very shallow water. So Buddha he himself is afraid to teach the people. Then, the myth says the god BRAHMA himself comes to the Buddha kneeling down and asked Buddha to teach people what he had gains during all his life BRAHMA implies that is what every human needed to satisfied one’s life otherwise the human life would never be fulfilled. And then Buddha decided to give his teachings. For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha devote his rest of his life bringing his teachings the â€Å"Dharma† the fundamental laws of all things into the world. He preached his first sermon in Sarnath, near Varanasi. He taught that the world is full of sorrows and people suffer on account of desire. Hence desires needed to be conquered by following Eightfold Path. Of these eight paths, the first three would ensure physical control, the next two ensures mental control, and the last two would ensure intellectual development. It is said that the Buddha traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Cast was irrelevant to the Buddha so his teachings focused within the universe. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes, and had no caste structure, as was the rule for most Hindus in the-then society. Bliss, nirvana the Buddha taught could be found in a freeing movement through the practice of meditation the Buddha showed to his followers how to come to the terms with their own roiling thoughts and desires by paying attention to them, by becoming aware becoming mindful. What Buddha realizes is that if we can get rid of this fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of itself based on egotism, we won’t screw up everything we do, because we are thinking about it in a wrong way. Once you stop centering your feelings about feelings on yourselves, what naturally arise are simple compassions, compassions for your own sufferings and others as well. For decades the Buddha shared his teachings all across north eastern India that all beings are happy, he taught weak or strong, great or small. He said let us cherish all creatures as a mother her only child. Bare foot in his robes he was still walking along the roads when he was eighty an old age was upon him his back hurt, his stomach was often in pain, â€Å"I am old worn out† he told to a trusted disciple â€Å"like a deflated craft held together within straps†, the world is so sweet he said that he could understands to wanting to live at least another century but he was fragile and exhausted he become ill at the village named Kushinagar near Nepal. Kushinagar is revered by the pilgrims where the Buddha finally left this world. It was in Kushinagar where he grew weak and has to laid on his side in a quite grove of Sal trees as near the end his disciples began to weep striking with grief. But the Buddha reassured them that all things change he said whatever is born is subject to decay. He was saying these is natural process he tells his disciples, use this time, use the energy here even this, for your own awakening , so he use even his own death and their sadness as a time to remind them of what they real task was. In short: Now, Buddhism is more than 2500 years old there are more than 350 million followers in the world who follows Buddhism. The gist is Buddhism arose as a result of Siddhartha Gautam’s quest for Enlightenment in around the 6th century BC. There is no belief in a personal God in Buddhism. It is not centered on the relationship between humanity and god. Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or permanent- change is always possible. The two main Buddhist Sects are Theravada Buddhism and Mahayam Buddhism, but there are many more. There is not particular place where Buddhists can worships they can worships both at home or at a temple. The path to enlightenment is through the practice and development of morality, mediation and wisdom. â€Å"It may be that after I am gone that some of you will think that now we have no teacher but that is not how you should see it, let the dharma and the discipline that I have taught you be your teacher, all individual things pass away strive on untiringly† Buddha’s last words. The fundamental need for the peace is the peace in the individuals mind. We can give others only the values and idea that we possess. Only the happy and satisfied person, therefore, can provide the happiness and love to others and be able to unite people. The present world situation is the result of our way of thinking. World peace is possible only when all the people love each other. If everybody thinks about each other we would not have problems, but we are habitual in our thinking and define everything according to ourselves or group or community or country. If we steal from another, we steal from ourselves. Instead, we should learn to give and take care of things that belong to our family, to the school, or to the public. Proper conduct shows respect for oneself and others. Our bodies are gifts from our parents, so we should protect them from harm. Young people should especially keep their natures pure and develop their virtue. It is up to them to make the world a better place to live. Religion is religion only when it unites people and not if divides. We therefore, need conversation from leaders to masters, religious persons to spiritual persons to achieve a level of World Peace.

Various sources of finance Essay Example for Free

Various sources of finance Essay In addition to bank loans there is a range of alternative sources of finance available. At same time, a loan from a bank might not be the best way forward for every business. THESE ARE THE MOST POPULAR ROUTES: 1. Own finance – one can choose to start his own business by using his own financial resources. This may be from savings accounts or other investments that he has. Typically, it is not advised that one should fund his start-up from personal overdrafts, loans or credit cards as these are not necessarily tailored to your business needs or requirements. 2. Family and friends You may have family and friends who wish to invest in your business. This is often convenient and may allow you to get finance on favorable terms. However, make sure you have a formal agreement of loan terms in place so you or your family and friends are not left unprotected in the event that you are unable to repay the loan. 3. Banks: The most common forms of finance used by start-ups are: †¢Business overdrafts Banks offer overdrafts as a form of short-term finance. These are available to companies that have business current accounts. They are a good way of covering any fluctuations of money coming in and going out of your business. †¢Term loans Loans are designed to help you buy equipment and supplies for your business. They are best if you need to buy fixed assets, such as machinery or office equipment, where the amount you need is not going to change. 4. Grants These are a good option for businesses looking for financial assistance for specific projects. mostly, funding comes from EC and UK government sources, including local authorities, charitable trusts,( e.g. prince Charles trust funds) and corporate sponsors. Further on www.grantnet.com 5. Loans It is not just banks that can provide a loan. Business support organizations such as enterprise and development agencies can help businesses looking for loans. The National Enterprise Network is a good example: http://www.nationalenterprisenetwork.org/ 6. Business Angels Often high net worth individuals, Business Angels invest in high growth businesses on their own or as part of a syndicate. In addition to providing finance, Business Angels often make available to companies their own skills, experience and contacts. If you are interested in finding out if a Business Angel is right for you, visit: http:// www.businessangel.org

Adequacy Of Crime Control In The Uk Criminology Essay

Adequacy Of Crime Control In The Uk Criminology Essay Analyse the adequacy(sufficient to satisfied or meet a need) and relevance(relation of something) of the crime control and due process models for understanding criminal justice, with reference to the jurisdiction you are in and/or England and Wales. For discussing this question we should first tell what criminal justice system is and how it does works. A Criminal Justice system is a set of legal and social institutions to ensure the implementation of criminal law with a set course of rules and regulations . The system of criminal justice is directed at controlling and mitigating crimes, punishing the offender and providing safety to the society by the help of the government. Today its one of the major concerns of the general public. Fruitfully criminal justice is a behavior that changes with the change in different aspects of the society and varies with space and time(Black, 1976). A lot of agencies namely the Police, the Crown Prosecution service,judges,juries,lawyers. courts etc. are working together to reform and improve the Criminal Justice System (CJS). The main challenge was that of making the prisons system and the processes of dealing with prisoners more better and efficient .Only to criminal justice process a number of government departments agencies and other departments make contributions which sometimes can be conflicting. Maintaining a level of deterrence in the society that can stop the violation of law by punishing and convicting those who are guilty and deliver justice to the society is the sole purpose of Criminal Justice System. One of the reasons which has made this system more prone to criticism is due to the recent modifications made to it with the amendments made to the areas that are more concerned with the proceedings of these crimes.Every citizen has the right to be safe and is always eager to know that whether the criminal will be brought to justice or not.punishing the offender can increase public faith.CJS also aims at practicing fairness in the system fair treatment to everyone. A few societies have been able to setup criminal justice institutions that practice equality,fairness and openness (Prillaman 2000; Solomon and Foglesong 2000; Ungar 2002). The local criminal justice board led on reducing crime and administering justice on local basis. The crime levels have been increasing, which leaves the subject even more criticized however there exists a mistrust of justice for those who believe that the innocent people are being punished and the guilty people escape. Mostly justice systems that practice secrarcy, brutality and arbitrariness are in a society that is under authoritarian regime (Smykla 1989; McElligott 1994; Shelley 1994; Trevaskes 2004). We will examine how the CJS works and focus on the crime control model and due process model. Its theories and models are are identified following. Due process model: it can be said that the current system in UK is a element of the Due Process Model. The Model looks very much like an obstruction route. Each of its succeeding stages is planned to present frightening impediments to carrying the accused any further along in the course. this was created by the American Commentator Herbert Packer in 1968.the primary social goal of the model is Justice and there is an emphasis on fairness and procedural due Process. Basically the model insists on the avoidance and removal of mistakes to the level possible, a process of evidence gathering and dealing with suspects that are needed to protect the accused. The crime control models primary goal is to control crime and punishment of offenders, focuses on ensuring that the police get the convictions in courts. It emphesises on the responsibility of an individual to protect the citizens of the society that abide by the law by apprehending and punishing the criminals (Pecker,1968), David Bunkett was responding to a journalists question concerning the Prime Ministers speech regarding a move towards Crime Control Centered Criminal Justice System, on BBC News. One of the major and most disturbing problems of the Crime Control Model is the miscarriages of justice The rest of models like the The restorative justice mode, bureaucratic model ,A medical model, social integration and exclusion model and status passage model requires no discussion yet. Here the main models of crime control and due process will be discussed that are considered as two different ideal types of criminal justice.Protection of the innocence and elimination of crimes from the street is the main role of crime control.While comparing both models it should be borne in mind that proponents of both models embrace constitutional values. According to the crime control model repression of criminal conduct should be the vital purpose of the criminal process and that justice should focus on upholding the rights of victims rather than those of the accused. Based on the concept of police fact-finding it treats the alleged criminal as guilty. This therefore, shows a negative mannerism of the crime control model. Now coming towards the latter goal, in the due process model the focal point is the assumption that a person cannot be deprived of his liberty or rights unless the relevant legal procedures and safeguards are adhered to. Those who believe in harsh approaches towards criminal activity may be classed in favor of crime control whereas those against the notion of state intrusions and harassment of the accused tend to value the due process model. There seems erratic swings in crime control in some societies (Rose,2000). On the other hand, the due process model rests upon the principle of legal guilt and the presumption of innocence. After scrutinizing both the models it appears that much depends on the political climate of a country on what model to adopt. It follows that the crime control model mirrors the conservative ideals while the due process thereby reflecting liberal views. During the 1960s the system was manipulated by the policies of the due process. However, when conservatism dominated from the mid 1970s to the early twenty-first century the criminal justice system took the shape of the crime control model.The most important breakdown that is also considered as the failure of law enforcement is bringing criminal conduct under strict control that vanishes an important condition of human freedom. Successful operation of this model must result into a strong rate of apprehension and conviction. Secondly it has to be done in a manner that although the resources are limited still a very large m agnitude can be dealt with.According to Paul Roberts by far the most important function that has to be performed by the criminal process is based on the proposal of forcibly subjugating crime conduct which is the basic of crime control model. A properly criminalized conduct is the dependency of this model. Punishing the guilty and freedom of the innocenct is the aim of both of these models. Here it should also be mentioned as Zander points out that there are so many important current developments affecting criminal justice that it is difficult to keep abreast of them and even more difficult sometimes to be sure whether they are to be welcomed or deplored .A number of miscarriages can be seen in justice that are rapidly increasing. The three great IRA cases are have gathered a lot of interest and highlighted problem of miscarriage of justice. The Guildford four, Derek Bentley, Birmingham six , the Maguire seven, Judith ward and Bridgewater four. In all these cases later Royal commission found them innocent and before that people served long time in prison for wrongly being accused.. The defendants had their convictions quashed by the court of appeal. The structural reforms purposed and accepted by both the May inquiry into the Guildford four and the Runciman commission, which reported in 1993. In case of Birmingham six, where Defendant was beaten up after arrest and forced to confess. Lord Denning held that the police were guilty of perjury; that they were guilty of violence and threats; that the confession was involuntary and improperly admitted in evidence; and that the convictions were erroneous ,Lord Denning held à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that the police were guilty of perjury; that they were guilty of violence and threats; that the confessions were involuntary and improperly admitted in evidence; and that the convictions were erroneousà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ in the case of Cardiff three, where d was held for murder of a Cardiff prostitute and later the convictions were quashed on the basis of the fact. The Lord Chief justice held that the techniques of interrogation used by the police amounted to an oppression of s.76 of PACE. Case of M62 bombing, where d was convicted of murder and causing an explosion. She did not appeal. Her convictions were quashed. Her personality disorder which rendered her confession unreliable. Tottenham three, d was convicted of murder of a police officer. their appeal was unsuccessful. However Home Secretary referred their case back to CA and their convictions were quashed. And Confait, (which resulted in the royal commission on criminal procedure)the d confessed to a crime that they had actually not committed ,similar problems with confession evidence occurred. the common element which was found in these cases was confession from the suspect and its clearly seen how the police has abuse their powers to arrest the victim bringing them to justice thus taking away the rights of innocent party .one thing we should mention is the Royal commission on criminal justice which was set up by the Home Secretary on the day when Birmingham six was released. It was served by the Lord Runciman and its report was published in 1993.the reason was to examine the reality of the criminal justice system. The report was for securing the convictions of the guilty, which contained disclose of evidence by prosecution and defense and unsupported confession evidence.

Power of Nuclear Energy Essay -- Nuclear Reactor Breeders

Abstract The use of nuclear energy is a big topic for debate. Many countries have fully embraced it while others, such as the U. S., haven’t. Nuclear energy is feared for its danger and scorned because of its wastes. On the other hand, nuclear energy does have some pros like cheaper cost of energy and environmentally safe. Reactor breeders show great promise in nuclear waste, but are it enough to convince the nation? Introduction Nuclear knowledge has existed for a long time. Nuclear Engineering U.S. Department of Energy relates, ―By 1900, the physicists knew the atom contains large quantities of energyâ€â€" (par 11). Many others formed good theories, such as Ernest Rutherford and Einstein’s contribution with his equation E=mc^2. In 1934 a physicist known as Enrico Fermi conducted an experiment that resulted in the splitting of atoms. In 1938 two scientists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman, conducted an experiment that was the beginning of a new realization in the nuclear world. Nuclear Engineering U.S. Department of Energy describes, ―Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman fired neutrons from a source containing the elements radium and beryllium into uranium (atomic number 92)â€â€" (par 15). The experiment resulted in a new and unexpected out come. The elements that were naturally produced during such experiments weighed only a little less than uranium; whereas, this time the elements were ar ound half as light. They shared their information with Lise Meitner who studied the out come with Neils Bohr and her nephew Otto R. Frisch. The three of them concluded that the light weighted elements were the results of The Power of Nuclear Energy 3 the uranium splitting also known as fission. Lise Meitner proved this theory using Einstein’s theory. Bo... ...ear energy has many faults, but along with it nuclear energy has many advantages. People need to put aside the fears of nuclear plant that have grown out of tragedies and scares such as Three Miles Island and the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant explosion. The Chernobyl has been the only plant that has caused destruction out of over six decades of nuclear power. The nuclear waste can be reused to form more energy using breeder reactors solving most of the waste problem. The costs of nuclear energy are lower than the costs for most other forms of energy. Nuclear energy is constant and not seasonal like solar or wind energy. It is environmentally safe for animals and people living near by. Nuclear energy does not contribute to nuclear energy like coal produced energy. It would be a smart move for our country to move in the direction towards a more nuclear powered nation.

Comparing James Joyces The Dead and Dubliners :: comparison compare contrast essays

An Analysis of The Dead To start in absolutely the least likely place, we have here another version of family life in Ireland (moving East, and from here through The Snapper make a unit contrasting with the previous one), with another way of picturing what the Irish take to be their insularity and closedness, their ludicrous longing for union with the supposedly superior but alien culture of "the continent", and especially that confusion and torment about sexuality which derives so directly from the Irish church's inability to reconcile desire as sin and desire as life-affirming. A fact (at least according to a major recent survey): married Catholics have better sex than other married Americans. Why? It's been suggested that you can't preach so fully the analogy between the union of man and woman with the union of Christ and his church and indeed of man with God without giving a celebratory turn to married love. But this would be inconceivable to the Irish, whose church (despite its being the dominant influ ence on American Catholicism) focuses on the ascetic and the equation of sex with sin. In a sense, because he is so firmly embedded in this tradition, struggling against it, Joyce seems both hopelessly dated and eternal: hopelessly dated because we don't have enough residue of the sense of sinfullness in our culture to have it be much of a force we have to struggle against, and eternal because it remains true for everyone that passing into adulthood (especially through adolescence) means somehow coming to terms with what is a strand of conflict between sexuality insofar as it is self-aggrandizing and aggressive and the affectional life as it is non-self-aggrandizing and other-centered and in some sense more "pure"-seeming. It is of course possible to come to good terms with this contradiction, but it is also possible to understand and be undermined by its existence, and Gabriel is a very clear instance of the person who can't really reconcile simple physical desire for his beloved wife, a 'getting close to and taking' motive, with equally simple adoration and affection for her in the grace and authenticity of her autonomy, a 'standing back and in some sense giving' motive (I read two passages from Portrait, 171, as against 99-101). So Gabriel is troubled by what strikes us awfully oddly as his moments of pure and "clownish" "lust", and

Marxism Essay -- essays research papers

In this paper, I am going to explore the differences between communism and socialism and how different the thoughts and opinions of these two ways of life are from the current western views on religion and God. To explain about the differences between socialism/communism and western thoughts on religion I will explore the writings of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. They are founders and writers of a lot of the socialist and communist thoughts on religion and God. In our western society when we discuss God and religion, people for the most part are going to lean one way or another when it comes to their beliefs on religion. If you are from the western part of globe like myself the views and thoughts hinge on the belief of God as a superior being, a perfect one, one who controls everything that happens. The other side of the coin in western culture would be the atheist who does not believe in God at all. There are many other views about God and Religion that differ greatly from the vi ews that are held throughout the western regions of the world. In a lot of the Eastern countries of the world the teaching of the Socialist and Communist parties that rule these areas of the world has influenced the views that have been passed down and taught through out the years. Communism and Socialism do not believe in the theory that there is one perfect God and that you can only receive salvation through him. In the western religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, God is the one and only Supreme Being, the Creator of everything. Nothing exists in the world to these religions unless God had created it. God is the omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, all good and eternal to salvation. God created the world and all its components for a purpose. God created human beings to know, to love, to honor, to serve and to obey Him. God is to be thought of in masculine terms, even though God is a pure spirit and has no material or bodily parts. Humans will be judged after death as to how well they have fulfilled God's plan for them. Those who have failed, the sinners, will be punished for eternity. Those who have succeeded will be rewarded for eternity. The exact nature of the reward or punishment is hotly disputed, but all seem to agree that those who are rewarded will be in God's presence and those who are punished will not. There are many arguments from people who do not believe... ...gard to the next world. Religion is the opium of the people, that is, it acts as a kind of painkiller. Religion makes bearable the unbearable, such as: poverty, hunger, inequality and repression that happen in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Christian religion means salvation to some and to others it is only something that only resides in the thoughts of the people of that society. A Marxist would tell you that true salvation could only be achieved here on earth by working. Salvation is something that all would hope would be in the future for themselves. In this paper we have examined two differing opinions on how salvation can be achieved one was through religion and the other was the socialist way of life. The argument between societies about religion will not be settled here on earth. Who is right and who is wrong in the argument about religion? Is religion just a figment of our imagination, is it something humans made up to make us feel good about the future and our salvation. Or are the Marxists wrong, could religion be everything it is meant to be in the Christian religion. Could religion be the real salvation? These are great questions to ponder and talk about.

If girls should study separetly from boys Essay

This paper argues that single-sex public education brings more harms than benefits. The issue of single-sex public schooling in the U. S. has been in the centre of a heated debate recently. Some scholars and education practitioners argue that educating girls separately from boys results in healthier learning environment and psychological development of representatives of both genders. Along with presenting arguments and evidence in support of mixed gender education, this paper will also dismiss major theses put forward by the proponents of single-sex education. First of all, mixed gender education benefits both girls and boys since early encounter with persons of opposite sex helps children and teenagers shape healthier perceptions about gender roles and relations between genders. In the absence of information about representatives of different gender, various stereotypes and misperceptions develop. On the contrary, when boys and girls study together, they can observe peculiarities of male and female behavior and identity formation, thus learning to acknowledge and respect differences between genders. Secondly, single-sex education reinforces the notion that men and women are not fully equal as the participants of public life. If the differences between genders are regarded as too dramatic to educate boys and girls together, such approach presumes tat mean and women are too different to participate in other spheres of public life on equal grounds. However, the idea that has been consistently promoted throughout the 20th century was that women are also rational subject and are entitled to the same set of rights as men. Single sex education can thus be viewed as a step back in the historical development of our society. Thirdly, differences in learning styles are not necessarily an impediment to academic progress. Since boys and girls have different approach to educational process, coeducation can help to unleash the potential of the diversity of learning attitudes and experience. In such a way, ‘coeducation exposes all students to a range of male and female-oriented learning experiences. Importantly, boys and girls gain social maturity through valuable interactive play and shared learning’ (Ipswich Girls’ Grammar School, 2007, para. 2). The proponents of single sex schooling disagree with the aforementioned statement. They believe that differences in learning styles are best addressed when boys and girls study separately. Under such scenario, they argue, teachers can choose the most effective way of presenting the material and assessing students’ progress, since they have an opportunity to tailor their teaching manner to the needs of representatives of a particular gender. In support of their claim they cite evidence of better performance in single sex schools as compared with coeducational schools. In dismissing this evidence, two factors need to be taken into account. First of all, these studies measured only short-term impact on academic performance without paying due attention to the continuity and integrity of learning process. There may be fluctuations in performance indicators across districts, regions, and years. The proponents of single sex education fail to prove that educating girls separately from boys bring long-term academic benefits: As opposed to concurrent indicators of academic achievement, any positive effects of SS [single sex] schooling on longer-term indicators of academic achievement are not readily apparent’ (U. S. Department of Education, 2005, ‘Summary of Findings in Each Domain,’ ‘Long-term, quantifiable academic accomplishment’). On the contrary, differences in learning styles may sometimes lead to higher performance indicators as coeducation encourages representatives of both genders to study better. Since psychologically girls are more inclined to learning and academic environment, they set a certain level of achievement. Naturally, boys in the same classroom are pressured to live up to the standard: ‘While girls might set the benchmark in standards, once boys understand the required level, their competitive nature encourages them to strive for mastery, often leading to achievement levels beyond the benchmark’ (Ipswich Girls’ Grammar School, 2007, ‘Setting the bar’). As for the argument that single sex education raises self-esteem, especially in all-girls schools and classrooms, it can be contested, too. While short-term impact on self-esteem may be positive, long-term harms again outweigh all the perceived benefits. When boys and girls are educated separately, they get used to single sex environment and acquire social skills that helps them operate in such environment only. However, after graduation they are required to learn how to operate in mixed-gender environment, which can be stressful and diminish their chances to lead a full-fledged social life. In conclusion, it is necessary to say that the question of single sex v. coeducation should be further researched. It is one of the fundamental social policy debates that shape public life in our country – just like abortion, gun control, global warming, or euthanasia – and therefore it should be carefully considered and scrutinized before final decision on this issue is made.

Arranged Marriage vs. Free-choice Marriage Essay

Happy marriages begin when we marry the ones we love, and they blossom when we love the ones we marry† (Tom Mullen, 2005, p.1). It is argued that free-choice marriages based on love or romance, offer more independence and freedom as compared to arranged marriages where the man and woman are chosen by the parents and so there is pressure and is not so suitable and independent. However, no marriage is necessarily an ideal sort of marriage. Therefore, it becomes difficult to predict the ideal sort of marriage. The decision is upon the individual, whether he or she wants to be part of an arrange or free-choice marriage. There are two main types of marriages that are practiced in various societies and cultures and they are: arranged marriages and free-choice marriages. Both type of marriages have benefits and particular expectations for the man and woman. Research shows that the type of marriage chosen often reflects a person’s values, traditions, beliefs, and cultural custom s. Both arranged and free-choice marriages have similarities and differences. An arranged marriage is an union between two prospective spouses chosen by the parents and sometimes between the extended family. In most cases of arranged marriages the two partners can have a say in it after several meetings with one another or even just once. However, in some cases the parents make the final decision and do not let the daughter or son have a say in it after that. This is explained well in Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, â€Å"Arranged marriages can also be very flexible. In one scenario, the parents introduce their son or daughter to several potential mates, while giving two the final decision, given sometime† (2005). The relationship in an arranged marriage starts off from not knowing each other and or no feelings, and as time moves on, the love is built on together as the partners get to know each other more and spend more time together. The partners learn to love each other and in many cases the partners are more conservative and it takes longer for th em to develop a bond. Unlike love or romantic marriages, arranged marriages have learned to love. Even after taking these facts in consideration, arranged marriages are being practiced all over the world. However, it depends on different cultures around the world. If research is done, arranged marriages would be most  likely be happening in parts of Africa, most of Asia, and a good portion of Eastern Europe. Knowing where arranged are being practiced, it is also important to know that arranged marriages are practiced when the two partners are chosen by others for some specific reasons or due to the person’s traditions, beliefs, and culture. When deciding an arranged marriage, special requirements need to be fulfilled from both sides of the couple. Therefore, these requirements should be acceptable from both the parents and the couple. For example, in some cases, women get the opportunity to work and some are usually forced to be stay-at-home moms. Also sometimes the two partners have to be the same nationality, have the same beliefs, belong in the same culture and etcetera. â€Å"The importance of good family background and compatibility as far as upbringing and family is concerned are vital for two individuals entering into a relationship† (Alochona, 2004, p.1). However, most people believe that there is a low rate of divorce. If the two people do not know much about each other, it would be better for their marriage because they will find out new and interesting facts about each other during the time they spend together after marriage. As in free-choice, also called love or romance marriages, both partners know each other from before and do not have much left to find out or maybe in some cases, a number of new things can be found between couples. So, it is more likely to get bored of the marriage life if that is the case and it could lead up to divorce. In different cultures around the world, this type of marriage is a type of an advantage for people who need money, therefore they will find someone who will be willing to marry the person because they cannot afford money to arrange the marriage function or give to their daughters as a dowry. Also, this type of marriage is chosen because of social status. A rich family will want their heir to marry into a family that is worth their status. And lastly, very religious and cultural son and daughters will just agree to an arranged marriage because of the way they have been brought up since childhood and they know that they will not have to worry about their parents of not approving or rejecting of their choice of spouse. On the other side, a free-choice marriage can be based on romance or  friendship. The relationship between this type of marriage can be based on admiration and with a person known really well from before. If the relationship has been brought together because of romance, it often seems for both of the partners that they are not able to live without each other. In this type of marriage, timing is important. It takes time for the two people to fully understand each other and make this big decision. Romance allows the two people to spend more time together and get to know each other better. This marriage is considered very sweet and romantic. Many people imagine themselves having this type of marriage one day. The idea of falling in love with someone is great because if the person is known from before, it makes it easier knowing that the rest of the upcoming marriage life will be spent with that person. Sometimes it also makes it easier when two people are in love, they are comfortable around each other and they have a certain understanding of what the other expects. A free-choice marriage can also be based on friendship. If a person is very good friends with another person, it could lead up to romance. It is heard quite often that â€Å"Friendship is the first step towards love and the last step†. Knowing that a free-choice marriage has so many great feelings stored within it, it is being practiced all over the world. This type of marriage is not based on religious and cultural beliefs however it is based on feelings and emotions. Love just happens, no one can ignore it or even try to ignore it. If it cannot be ignored , it cannot be stopped. This leads to the two people thinking they are ready and have chosen their partner to move onto the next step, and that step is marriage. However, before making such a big decision, most people think about their values, traditions, beliefs, and cultural customs because they know this will have a large amount of impact on their upcoming future. Even in this type of marriage certain circumstances have to be taken in consideration. Such examples include when two people are in love they are at their best to impress the other person, they wear their best clothes, they are at their best behaviour and project many things that they are actually not, and also it takes a while between couples to shed the veil after marriage when they are more open and comfortable towards each other. When a person thinks about a free-choice marriage they think of love and freedom and automatically agree to it, to the great feelings stored within the marriage. A person would choose this type of marriage because they would not have to worry about not knowing the person from before. They know the person he or she is going to be with, have all the qualities they are looking for and have no doubt about it. Being comfortable with each other and when around each other is a big factor and in this relationship, this is all included. In this type of marriage, there is no pressure of their family, friends, culture, and society because the marriage is based on freedom and own choice. There is no involvement of the parents and there is no worry about dowry and so on. Also, in this type of marriage the couples understand each other well and they decide this from over looking at all the factors that would need to be considered after marriage. Such examples include: children, work, homes, etcetera. In this generation, it does not matter what love is or what relationships are, most people just want to do what they want and what they think is right. Whether it is an arranged marriage or a free-choice marriage, it takes two people who are very responsible, honest, and committed for the union to succeed. Arranged or free-choice, people seek perfect husband and wives but no one is hundred percent perfect. The success of marriage is in mutual understanding and acceptance, and also in mutual love and respect. Neither arranged marriages nor free-choice marriages are better than one another, it is up to the individual who is involved to decide which is best for them.†Getting married is a complete package. One does not marry the person as such but his or her habits, family, emotional problems, background, experiences, career, and many other things that are required to be dealt with† (p.1). â€Å"Success in marriage does not come merely through finding the right mate, but through being the right mate† (Barnett Brickner,2002, p.2). References August, P. (2005, October). Arranged Marriages in the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriageBowman, H. & Spanier, G. (1978). Modern Marriage. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Mullen, T. (2005). Love Marriages. iloveindia. http://weddings.iloveindia.comNighat, S. (2005) personal Interview. 7 December. O’Neil, N. & O’Neil, G. (1973, February). Open Marriage. Dushkin Publishing Company Group Inc. Sabreen, F. (2005, May). Arranged versus Love Marriage. The New Nationhttp://nation.ittefaq.com/artman/exec/view.cgi/30/18526

Soft Thinking and Intellectual Capital

{draw:frame} University of Glamorgan MSc International Logistics and Transport Programme/Strategic Procurement Management STRATEGY AS PRACTICE Soft Systems Thinking and Intellectual Capital Assignment 1 *Student No: *08193738 Assignment Date: 5 April 2009 *Submission Date:* 15 May 2009 Module Lecturer: Paul Davis Word Count:* * *2,* 600 Critically evaluate the role that Soft Systems thinking can play in promoting organisations Intellectual Capital. To evaluate the benefits of Soft Systems Thinking (SST) in promoting an organisational intellectual capital it is necessary to understand the concept of Soft Systems Methodology and how this methodology can be used to foster teamwork, communities of practice and social learning, and whether these learning outcomes adds knowledge to employees, and leads to improved professional practice and efficacy. So what price do you put on learning – and as an intangible asset does it need to be measured to promote Intellectual Capital (IC) to support the â€Å"effective delivery of strategic goals by focusing management activities and processes†. Andriessen (2004). Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) advocated by Checkland and Scholes (1990) is a methodology based on applying systems thinking to non system situations. It is a holistic way of dealing not with the problem but the â€Å"situation† in where there are â€Å"social, political and human activities† Checkland and Scholes (1990). As opposed to â€Å"hard system methodologies, which can be quantified, measured and are technology orientated. Soft Systems takes a group of â€Å"actors† through a process of a shared â€Å"problem† appreciation. Learning about the problem, then formulating a root definition of interrelated systems, these examine the relationships of the relevant subsystem: which are the stakeholders, such as customers, employees, the worldview (weltanschauungen) and the management who are â€Å"all active in the system and take collective action to improve the situation† Checkland (1981) Senge (1990) also describes systems thinking as having five learning disciplines, personal mastery, me_ntal models, shared vision, team learning, and the overarching discipline of systems thinking. Therefore, soft systems thinking is a tool that helps in the solving of problems involving human activities where the outcome is learning. Soft systems thinking can enable subjective perceptions of problems and potential solutions. Checkland and Scholes (1990). There are a number of different issues and approaches that can be used to develop a framework for the application of systems thinking for promoting the intellectual capital of any organisation. Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) advocated by Checkland and Scholes (1990) helps to achieve a clearer understanding of organisational issues and problem â€Å"situations†, as it approaches issues holistically. â€Å"System thinking is a discipline for seeking wholes, recognizing patterns and interrelationships, and learning how to structure those relationships in a more effective and efficient way † Senge and Lannon-Kim (1991. Therefore, managers having a range of skills and knowledge can add value to any improvement initiative. Rose and Haynes (2001) developed and used the methodology in a number of settings in the NHS and Iles and Sunderland (2001) cited the potential of SSM as an aid to implementing organisational change initiatives at King’s College Hospital London. (Iles and Sunderland, 2001:35) Soft systems thinking can help organisations to develop new perspectives, as it accounts for factors that otherwise would be ignored. A human activity system, can compliment strategic frameworks, such as the â€Å"Balance Scorecard† to co-ordinate business activities and improve internal and external communications. Kaplan and Norton (1992) However, humans view problems differently because they come from different backgrounds, and have different cultural roots, experience, and education, and as a subsystem, different personalities and philosophies to life. Therefore; if a group of managers at different management levels and different departments are all involved in a complex â€Å"problem situation†, SST maybe an excellent tool to create a conceptual understanding of a problem, but it does not represent the real world, but by using system rules and principles it allows thinking to be structured, to develop some models, and the situation can be expressed as a rich picture Checkland, (1981); Checkland and Scholes (1990) Although, Checkland (1999) contrasts with the emphasis on reductionists thinking on obvious problems with definite solutions. People interpret problem situations from particular standpoints and in terms of distinctive interests. Fortune and Peters (1995) speaks about ‘complex discursive’ networks challenging the understanding of systems, problems and solutions to problems. This system of relationships between people, activities, and the world is defined by Lave and Wenger (1991), as a Community of Practice, (CoP) ‘which develops over time’ and ‘in relation to’ other central and overlapping communities of practice’ and is a fundamental condition for the existence of knowledge. The approach focuses on the â€Å"social interactive dimensions of situated learning†. As people in the group interact with each other, establishing a relationship through mutual engagement and a sense of joint enterprise. Wenger (2000) describes three modes of belonging to a social learning system, as â€Å"engagement, imagination and alignment†. These cannot be formed, but have to evolve overtime, as new members join and others leave. So how can organisations like the NHS establish communities of practice? Brown and Duguid (2001a) suggests managers can seek to structure spontaneity, structuring fragmented practice across the organisation, they can encourage alignments of changing practices between communities thereby assisting the transfer of knowledge across the organisation. (Brown and Duguid 2001a). An equally important view has emerged under the banner of ‘the knowledge-based view of the firm' (Grant 1996), emphasises the necessity of organisations to develop and increase the knowledge and learning capabilities of employees through knowledge gaining, knowledge sharing, and knowledge transfer, to achieve competitive advantage. To take it further Lave and Wenger (1991) saw the gaining of knowledge as a social process, in which people participated in communal learning, but at different levels depending on their authority in the group. It is the shared commitment that binds the members of the CoP in a single social entity, and although members of the CoP build up tangible communal resources, such as written files, procedures, processes and policies, (hard knowledge) intangible resources are also being built up such as experiences rituals and idioms (soft knowledge). Hildreth and Kimble (2002) argued that the underlying problems of managing this knowledge was that Knowledge Management (KM) failed to recognise that knowledge itself consists of both hard and soft knowledge, much like the Chinese concepts of Yin and Yan and are mutually interdependent. â€Å"Knowledge by itself produces nothing; only when it is integrated into a task does knowledge benefit society. (Drucker 1992) Hislop (2004) examined three cases studies of CoP’s in large European organisations and concluded that only one was successful in sharing knowledge between communities. The other two failed to do so because they did not share the same identity. So it could be concluded that although CoP’s are self controlled and self directed, and maybe of value to the business organisation, the actual benefit and contribution to the organisation could also be uncertain. Maybe, because group solidarity in human communities, is often at the price of hostility/non-cooperation towards non-group members. â€Å"There appears to be a natural human inclination for dividing the world into friends and enemies that is the basis of all politics. † (Fukuyama, 1995) So knowledge maybe personified tacitly in the experiences of a community of practitioners in an organisation or explicitly in the written files, but Knowledge Management (KM) is a critical task for any organisation. Reducing tacit knowledge into numbers the organisation stands to lose money, although knowledge can be safely stored on computer systems – the actual value could be lost if an employee leaves with the tacit knowledge on how to use the explicit knowledge. Employee retention/turnover is important as downsizing and retirement can cause a loss of shared knowledge and knowledge could be transferred to competitors and be damaging to an organisations competitive advantage. (Stovel and Bontis (2002). Stovel and Bontis (2002) also advocate that â€Å"productivity will drop for a time due to the learning curve involved as new employees’ gain the knowledge of the tasks involved and understands and learns from the organisational culture. Information and data can be stored but it is not until it has been processed in the minds of an individual and is communicated to others does it become knowledge (Alavi and Leidener 2001) so to make tacit knowledge explicit, there has to be knowledge transfer. Knowledge transfer within and between organisations is not a one-way activity, but a process of trial and error, feedback, and mutual adjustment of both the source and the recipient (Von Krogh, 2003: 373). There have been a number of studies which have shown that some of the benefits of knowledge sharing/transfer can help solve problems and increase performance, adaptation, collaboration and innovation. (Constant, Sproull and Kiesler, 1996; Brown and Duguid, 2000). However, there is a great deal of literature on knowledge management and innumerable definitions of knowledge and what knowledge is, Blackler (1995) describes knowledge as â€Å"multifaceted and complex, being both situated and abstract, implicit and explicit, distributed and individual, physical and mental, developing and static, verbal and encoded. † While Fowler and Pryke’s (2003) views the more human element of knowledge â€Å"as much the perception arising from information and refracted through the individual’s personal lens†. Whereas, Knowledge Management Systems refers to information systems, particularly with the use of technology, which is adopted and designed to support employees, there is an emerging awareness that there is a social element to the area of knowledge management, which focuses on a more human centred approach, as a means of managing knowledge in organisations (Hildreth et el 1999) It is now recognised that the performance of any organisation, private and public is very much dependent upon the knowledge of the employees. But, it is the social element or the concept of â€Å"social capital† and its role in knowledge management for developing and gaining competitive advantage, and more broadly intellectual capital (IC) popularised by Stewart in Fortune magazine (1994) which has relational elements and comprises of human capital, structural capital, and organisational capital (Edvinsson and Malone, 1997; Stewart, 1997; Sveiby, 1997; Guthrie and Petty, 2000) and is viewed also as being central to the sustainability of competitive advantage. Edvinson and Malone (1997) defined human_ capital_ as the value of everything that ‘leaves the company at five p. m. † That is to say that only the shared knowledge assets or the _structural _capital only remains, when employees walk out through the door. Social capital can be defined as a set of informal values or norms shared among members of a group that permits them to cooperate with one another. â€Å"If members of the group come to expect that others will behave reliably and honestly, then they will come to trust one another. Trust acts like a lubricant that makes any group or organisation run more efficiently. † (Fukuyama, 1999, p16) With trust and the co-operation in groups and the social interactions based on informal communication, the building of networks can have economic benefits, with the creation of business opportunities through networking as trust reduces the costs of contracts and legal actions and shared values can make negotiations more successful. Social capital may also create business opportunities by facilitating and exchanging semi – confidential information and mutual ncouragement. (Glaser, Edward L. , Laibson, David, and Sacerdote, Bruce 2002), Intellectual Capital is the intangible economic value of organisational capital (structures, processes and culture) and human capital (skills, behaviour and knowledge) and it is the intangible asset of knowledge that is now being added to the classical production factors of land labour and capital. Growth and innovation are now rel ying on the intellectual capital /knowledge of an organisation, and how it uses the knowledge to compete in the market (Kim and Mauborgine (1999). The field of intellectual capital stems from the need of organisations to have to quantify assets. So efficient management of intellectual capital is directly linked to measurement and valuation (Andrieseen 2004) and has necessitated the introduction of reporting and valuations models for IC (Liebowitz and Suen 2000) and as the literature suggest the most popular measure of IC is the difference between the market value and the book value of a knowledge based firm (Brennan and Connell 2000. ) According to (Tuban and Aronson 2001) Knowledge is critically important because as an asset it appreciates rather than depreciates. Knowledge increases so intellectual capital is going to improve. So by using systems thinking to promote Intellectual Capital could be a powerful approach for understanding the nature of ‘problems situations’ and the way they are dealt with and how to go about improving results. The key benefit of the system is that it involves seeing the whole picture and creates insights to problems and can nurture the way that communities of practice can co-operate and learn through shared knowledge and experiences. System thinking is not an easy approach as it requires a substantial investment of effort, and thought, though the results can be more than worth the investment. Central to these ideas is that intellectual capital is ‘embedded in both people and systems. The stock of human capital consists of humans (the knowledge skills and abilities of people) social (the valuable relationships among people) and organisational (the processes and routines within the firm)’ (Wright et al 2001:716). But there are criticisms of Soft Thinks Thinking as the system is unable to deal with conflicting nature of social systems, and that it is a conceptual methodology and does not represent the real world, and the methodology implies that actors in a situation have the freedom to instigate change and that conflict does exist but the methodology relies on compromise. Douglas and MacGregor 1960 in his book â€Å"Human side of Enterprise â€Å"maintained that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to grow and develop. Which demonstrates that you can’t legislate for human behaviour and those humans also by nature can be territorial and will protect their domain, by advocating knowledge is power. Lave and Wenger (1991) fail to explore the implications of the distribution of power when discussing CoP and Marshall and Rollinson (2004) suggests that Lave and Wenger ( 1991) discussions of meaning can be misinterpreted as ‘ excessively quiescent and consensual’ while in reality such activities are plagued by misunderstanding and disagreements. Without trust the members of the community of practice may be reluctant to share knowledge, and may become static in terms of their knowledge base be resistant to change. There are limitations to the communities of practice but, its does allow the means to explore the transfer of tacit knowledge management tools focused on the codification of knowledge. But a community of practice is one of a number of knowledge management tools, and different organisations require different tools. 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